Author: Benjamin Noah

Installing a baby car seat correctly is one of those things every parent knows is important, but it can feel a bit daunting. The truth is, a properly installed car seat drastically lowers the risk of injury if you’re ever in a crash. Yet, surprisingly, studies show that a large number of car seats are installed incorrectly, which makes having clear guidance all the more essential.

Why Correct Installation Really Matters

The forces involved in a crash are intense — way more than we often imagine. If a car seat isn’t installed properly, it might not protect your child as it should. There’s a real risk the child could be ejected or get seriously hurt by hitting parts inside the car. Even a small mistake in installation can reduce how well the seat works, so it’s worth paying close attention.

Different Types of Baby Car Seats

Before you dive into installation, it helps to know what kind of car seat you’re dealing with:

• Infant Car Seats: These are designed just for newborns and small babies. They’re always rear-facing and usually come with a base you leave in the car, making it easy to click the carrier in and out.
• Convertible Car Seats: These versatile seats start rear-facing for infants and toddlers, then flip to forward-facing as your child grows.
• All-in-One Car Seats: Kind of like convertible seats, but they can also turn into booster seats when your child is ready.
• Booster Seats: For kids who have outgrown forward-facing seats. These raise your child so the car’s seat belt fits safely across their body.

A quick but important note: Always double-check the height and weight limits on your seat’s label. Kids should stay rear-facing as long as possible — usually until they hit the seat’s max weight or height, which is often around age two or more.

Getting Ready: General Steps Before Installation

No matter which car seat you have, these prep steps are critical:

1. Read the Manuals: Seriously, don’t skip this. Your car seat manual and your vehicle’s owner manual both have crucial instructions tailored to your exact models.
2. Check for Recalls and Expiration: Car seats don’t last forever. They usually expire between 6 and 9 years from the manufacture date. Also, make sure your seat hasn’t been recalled.
3. Pick the Safest Spot: Usually, the middle of the back seat is best—it’s the furthest from side impacts. But if you can’t get a secure install there, the side seats are acceptable. And never install a car seat in the front passenger seat if your car has active airbags.
4. Park on Level Ground: This makes it easier to get the seat at the right angle and properly tightened.

Installation Methods: LATCH vs. Seat Belt

You have two main ways to install a car seat: the LATCH system or your vehicle’s seat belt. You generally want to use one or the other—not both—unless both manuals explicitly say otherwise (which is pretty rare).

Method 1: Installing with the LATCH System

LATCH stands for Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children. It’s designed to make installation easier and more secure without relying on seat belts.

What’s involved?

• Lower Anchors: Two metal bars hidden in the crease between your car seat’s backrest and bottom cushion.
• Tether Anchor: A metal point usually at the back of the seat, rear deck, or floor/ceiling in vans and SUVs. The tether is for forward-facing seats only.

Rear-Facing Installation with LATCH (Infant or Convertible Seats):

1. Locate the lower anchors—they often have little symbols nearby.
2. Attach your car seat’s lower connectors (hooks or clips) firmly until you hear a click. Give them a tug to make sure they’re locked.
3. Adjust the recline angle. This is super important for your baby’s airway. Most infant seats have an adjustable foot or indicator. Use the built-in level (like a bubble or line) to check it. If allowed by your manual, you might use a rolled towel or pool noodle to help get the angle right.
4. Tighten the straps. Press down firmly on the seat or base while pulling the LATCH straps tight to remove any slack.
5. Perform the “inch test.” Grab the seat at the belt path and try to move it side to side and front to back. It shouldn’t move more than an inch. If it does, tighten those straps some more.

Forward-Facing Installation with LATCH (Convertible or All-in-One Seats):

1. Find both the lower anchors and the top tether anchor.
2. Attach the lower connectors securely.
3. Press down and tighten the lower straps.
4. Attach and tighten the top tether strap over the back of the seat to the tether anchor, pulling it snug to reduce your child’s head movement in a crash.
5. Do the inch test again to make sure it’s tight.

Method 2: Installing with the Vehicle’s Seat Belt

If your vehicle doesn’t have LATCH where you want to install the seat, or if your child or seat exceeds the LATCH weight limits, the seat belt method is the way to go.

Rear-Facing Seat Belt Installation:

1. Route the vehicle’s lap and shoulder belts through the rear-facing belt path on your car seat (usually marked in blue).
2. Buckle the seat belt.
3. Lock the seat belt. This is a critical step. Most modern seat belts have locking mechanisms for car seats:
   • Automatic Locking Retractor (ALR): Pull the shoulder belt all the way out until you hear clicks, then let it retract—this locks it tight.
   • Switchable Retractor: Some older cars require pulling the belt all the way out and then slowly feeding it back while holding tight.
   • Manual Locking Clip: Rare now, but some older setups use a metal clip to keep the belt tight.
   • Built-in Lock-off Devices: Many newer car seats have clamps that lock the belt automatically.
4. Adjust the recline angle using the level indicator and, if allowed, a towel or pool noodle.
5. Tighten by pressing down firmly on the seat while pulling the shoulder belt tight.
6. Perform the inch test to confirm minimal movement.

Forward-Facing Seat Belt Installation:

1. Route the belt through the forward-facing belt path (usually marked in red).
2. Buckle the seat belt.
3. Lock the belt using the appropriate method.
4. Tighten the belt firmly.
5. Attach and tighten the top tether to the vehicle’s tether anchor.
6. Do the inch test again.

Securing Your Child in the Car Seat

Once your seat is installed well, the next key step is making sure your child is buckled in properly:

• Harness height: For rear-facing seats, straps should be at or just below the shoulders. For forward-facing, they should be at or just above.
• Snug harness: Pull straps tight enough that you can’t pinch any slack at the collarbone. Straps should lie flat, no twists.
• Chest clip: Position it at armpit level to keep straps in place.
• Check the buckle: Make sure it’s not tucked under or uncomfortable.

When to Get a Professional Check

Even if you follow all the steps carefully, car seat installation can be tricky. If you’re ever unsure, or just want peace of mind, consider having a certified Child Passenger Safety Technician (CPST) inspect your installation.

• You can find CPSTs through organizations like Safe Kids Worldwide (U.S.) or local safety groups.
• Many fire stations, hospitals, or police departments hold free car seat check events.

Getting your baby’s car seat installed right might seem like a lot of work, but it’s absolutely worth it. Following these steps—and referring back to your manuals—will help keep your little one as safe as possible on every ride.

Choosing toys for a baby can sometimes feel a bit overwhelming with all the options out there. But picking the right toys—those that match their age and development—matters a lot. The right toy isn’t just fun; it can help stimulate their senses and encourage important skills. This guide breaks down what to look for at different stages during a baby’s first year.

1. Prioritize Safety Above All Else

First and foremost, safety is key. Babies tend to explore by putting things in their mouths, so small parts can quickly become a choking hazard.

• Choking Hazards: A simple rule is that if a part fits entirely inside a toilet paper roll, it’s too small for babies under three. Avoid toys with little detachable pieces like beads or buttons.
• Sturdy Construction: Look for toys that are well-made, without sharp edges or parts that could easily break off.
• Safe Materials: Choose toys made from non-toxic materials like BPA-free plastics, untreated wood, or organic fabrics. If a toy smells chemical-y, it’s better to skip it.
• Cords and Strings: Avoid toys with cords or strings longer than 12 inches (about 30 cm) to reduce strangulation risks.
• Battery Safety: If a toy uses batteries, make sure the compartment is screw-secured and can’t be easily opened.
• Labels and Certifications: Always check the recommended age on packaging—they’re based on safety, not just skill level. Look for safety marks like ASTM F963 (U.S.) or EN71 (Europe).
• Supervise: Even the safest toys need supervision. Never leave a baby alone during play.

2. Understand Baby Developmental Stages

Babies change fast. What’s right for a newborn won’t work for a 9-month-old, so match toys to their stage.

0-3 Months: Newborn Exploration

At this early stage, babies are mainly tuning into their senses.

• High-contrast toys in black, white, or red catch their still-developing eyes.
• Soft rattles or gentle musical toys stimulate hearing.
• Mobiles (kept out of reach) help with visual tracking.
• Unbreakable mirrors and textured mats make tummy time more interesting.
• Lightweight, soft toys encourage grasping practice.

3-6 Months: Reaching and Grasping

Babies begin reaching out and exploring cause and effect.

• Teething rings with different textures soothe sore gums.
• Activity gyms and play mats offer hanging toys for batting and kicking.
• Sensory balls invite rolling and holding.
• Soft books with crinkly pages introduce early textures and sounds.
• Linkable rings develop fine motor skills.
• Simple rattles remain favorites.

6-9 Months: Sitting, Crawling, Object Permanence

Mobility grows and babies start realizing things exist even when out of sight.

• Stacking cups or rings promote problem-solving.
• Soft blocks are great for building and knocking down (which is all part of learning).
• Cause-and-effect toys that light up or make noise fascinate.
• O-balls are easy to grasp and roll.
• Activity cubes invite exploration.
• Soft rollers encourage movement and reach.

9-12 Months: Cruising, Exploring, Problem-Solving

Babies are pulling up, cruising around, and getting more curious.

• Push and pull toys support walking skills.
• Shape sorters teach hand-eye coordination.
• Nesting toys develop spatial reasoning.
• Board books with clear images support early language.
• Toy phones or remotes let babies imitate grown-ups.
• Large pegboards help with matching and fine motor control.

3. Look for Engaging Features

Beyond age and safety, what makes a toy captivating?

• Sensory Stimulation: Toys that appeal to sight, sound, and touch—bright colors, varied textures, gentle sounds—tend to hold attention better.
• Open-Ended Play: Toys like blocks or stacking cups that can be used in different ways encourage creativity as your baby grows.
• Durability: Babies aren’t gentle. Pick toys that can handle chewing, dropping, and tugging.
• Easy to Clean: Since toys will get dirty, look for ones you can wipe down or wash without hassle.
• Purposeful Design: The best toys don’t just entertain; they support skill-building, whether that’s fine motor, gross motor, cognitive, or sensory development.

4. Consider Practicality and Quantity

More toys don’t always mean better play.

• Less Is More: Too many toys can overwhelm and distract a baby. A few thoughtfully chosen, quality toys often do more good.
• Rotation: Try rotating toys. Put some away and bring them back later to keep interest fresh without constantly buying new stuff.
• Storage: Think about where you’ll keep the toys and how easy it is to tidy up afterward.
• Versatility: Some toys grow with your baby, offering different ways to play at various stages—for example, soft blocks that can be chewed, stacked, or used imaginatively.

By keeping safety front and center, understanding where your baby is developmentally, choosing engaging features, and thinking practically about quantity, you’ll pick toys that not only delight but help your baby grow. And remember, the best toy isn’t necessarily the most expensive—it’s the one that’s safe, stimulating, and loved.

Watching a baby go from their first coos to saying their first words is truly something special. As a parent or caregiver, you play a huge role in helping this language journey along. And honestly, you don’t need fancy gadgets or expensive classes—the best things are often the simplest: consistent, loving interactions. Here’s a practical guide with steps you can take every day to nurture your baby’s language skills.

1. Talk, Talk, Talk (and Listen!)

If there’s one golden rule, it’s to talk to your baby as much as you can. They’re soaking up every sound, tone, and word.

• Narrate Your Day: Say what you’re doing as you do it. “I’m changing your diaper now,” or “Look, the dog is barking!” This helps babies link words to real things and actions.
• Use ‘Parentese’ (in Moderation): You might naturally speak in a higher pitch, slower pace, and exaggerated intonation. Research shows this “baby talk” grabs their attention and helps them learn sounds—though it’s good to mix in regular adult speech, too.
• Respond to Their Sounds: When your baby babbles or coos, reply as if you’re having a little chat. If they say “ba-ba,” you might answer, “Yes, that’s a ball!” It teaches the back-and-forth rhythm of conversation.
• Ask Questions and Pause: Even if they can’t answer yet, ask questions like, “Do you want your bottle?” then pause to give them a chance to respond with a sound or gesture.
• Limit Background Noise: Too much TV or radio can overwhelm babies. One-on-one talking is way more helpful for language learning.

2. Read to Your Baby Every Day

Reading aloud from day one is one of the best things you can do to boost language skills and literacy.

• Start Early: It’s never too soon. Even newborns benefit from hearing your voice and seeing colorful pictures.
• Pick Age-Appropriate Books: For newborns, high-contrast black-and-white books work well. By 3-6 months, crinkly and textured books catch their attention. Around 6-9 months, sturdier board and lift-the-flap books are great, and by 9-12 months, they enjoy rhyming books and pictures of everyday things.
• Make It Interactive: Point to pictures and name them. Ask simple questions like, “Where’s the cat?” and make sounds related to the story. Let your baby handle the book, too—even if pages get turned out of order!

3. Sing Songs and Rhymes

Songs and rhythm are fantastic for language learning.

• Sing Lullabies and Nursery Rhymes: The repetition and rhythm help babies notice speech sounds.
• Add Actions: Simple gestures with songs (“Pat-a-Cake” or “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star”) connect words to meaning and aid memory.
• Play Different Music: A variety of genres exposes your baby to diverse sounds, enriching their listening experience.

4. Play Language-Rich Games

Games are a natural, fun way to encourage communication.

• Peek-a-Boo: Teaches object permanence and encourages vocalizations and laughter.
• Pat-a-Cake: Builds memory and coordination through repetitive words and actions.
• Imitation Games: Mimic your baby’s sounds and movements, then wait for them to copy you—this conversational “dance” is vital.
• Naming Games: Point to body parts, toys, or household objects and name them aloud.
• “Where’s the…” Games: Hide a toy and ask, “Where’s the teddy?” then reveal it, reinforcing names and concepts.

5. Expand on Their Communication

When your baby tries to say something, respond by building on it.

• Expand Babbling: If they say “ga-ga” while pointing at a dog, say, “Yes, that’s a dog! The dog says woof-woof!”
• Expand Single Words: If they say “ball,” reply with, “Yes, that’s a big, red ball!” or “Do you want the ball?”
• Connect Words to Actions: When your baby reaches for a toy, say, “You want the car,” helping them link words to what they’re doing.
• Use Descriptive Language: Add detail. Instead of “blanket,” say “Look at the soft, fluffy blanket.”

6. Create Opportunities for Communication

Encourage your baby to express themselves.

• Offer Choices: Hold up two items and ask, “Do you want the apple or the banana?” Then wait to see what they reach for or look at.
• Pause and Wait: During play or chat, pause expectantly to give your baby a chance to respond.
• Respond to Gestures: When they point, name the object they’re indicating to reinforce nonverbal communication.

When to Seek Advice

Every baby develops at their own pace, but if you have any concerns about language milestones, don’t hesitate to talk with your pediatrician. Early support can really help.

Supporting your baby’s language is one of the most rewarding parts of parenting. By talking, reading, singing, and playing every day, you’re not just teaching words—you’re building a foundation for thinking, social skills, and emotional growth.

Holding a newborn or infant can feel daunting, especially for new parents or those not accustomed to handling tiny humans. The key to a secure and comfortable hold is proper support, focusing particularly on the baby’s delicate head and neck. Babies, especially newborns, lack the muscle strength to support their own heads, making your support absolutely critical. This guide will provide detailed, step-by-step instructions on various safe and supportive ways to hold a baby, ensuring both your peace of mind and your baby’s comfort.

Why Proper Support is Crucial When Holding a Baby

A baby’s head, especially in the first few months, is disproportionately large and heavy compared to the rest of their body. Their neck muscles are underdeveloped and cannot withstand the weight of their head. Without proper head and neck support, a baby’s head can flop backward or to the side, leading to:

• Injury: The most serious concern is potential injury to the neck muscles, ligaments, or even the spinal cord. This is often referred to as Shaken Baby Syndrome (though caused by shaking, poor head support can mimic some effects).
• Discomfort: A poorly supported head will make the baby feel insecure and uncomfortable, leading to fussiness.
• Difficulty breathing: In some positions, inadequate head support could compromise a baby’s airway.

Therefore, the golden rule of holding a baby is always to support the head and neck.

General Principles for All Baby Holds

Before we dive into specific holds, keep these universal principles in mind:

• Wash Your Hands: Always wash your hands before handling a baby to prevent the spread of germs.
• Be Calm and Confident: Babies can sense your demeanor. A calm and confident approach will make both of you more comfortable.
• Communicate with the Baby: Talk to your baby as you pick them up and hold them. This helps them feel secure.
• Clear the Area: Ensure you have a clear, safe space to sit or stand before picking up the baby. Remove any tripping hazards.
• Support the Head and Neck FIRST: No matter the hold, always ensure your hand or arm is supporting the baby’s head and neck before lifting them fully.
• Support the Bottom/Back: The baby’s bottom or back also needs firm support to prevent slumping or falling.
• Observe Your Baby: Pay attention to your baby’s cues. Are they comfortable? Are they fussing? Adjust your hold as needed.

Step-by-Step Guide: Common and Safe Baby Holds

Here are several popular and safe ways to hold a baby with proper support.

1. The Cradle Hold (Most Common for Newborns)

This is often the first hold parents learn and is perfect for feeding, cuddling, and gentle rocking.

• Step 1: Position Your Arms: Sit or stand comfortably. Place one arm under the baby’s head and neck, with your hand extending to support their upper back.
• Step 2: Position Your Other Arm: Use your other arm to support the baby’s bottom and lower back.
• Step 3: Gently Lift: Gently lift the baby, keeping their head cradled in the crook of your elbow or forearm. Your hand should be on their upper back, supporting their spine.
• Step 4: Bring Close to Body: Bring the baby close to your chest. Their body will rest along your forearm, with their bottom supported by your other arm/hand. Their head should be at the level of your elbow.
• Support Check: Ensure the baby’s head is fully supported and doesn’t flop back. Their spine should be in a relatively straight line.

2. The Shoulder Hold (Great for Burping and Eye Contact)

This hold is excellent for burping after a feed and for making eye contact as the baby gets a different view.

• Step 1: Initial Lift (Cradle First): Start by picking up the baby in a cradle hold to ensure initial head and neck support.
• Step 2: Transition to Shoulder: Slowly bring the baby’s body upright, resting their head gently on your shoulder.
• Step 3: Support the Head and Neck: Place one hand firmly on the baby’s head and neck, ensuring it’s fully supported and not pressing uncomfortably into your shoulder. Your fingers can cup the back of their head.
• Step 4: Support the Bottom/Back: Use your other arm to support the baby’s bottom and lower back. Your hand should cup their bottom or be flat against their lower back.
• Support Check: The baby’s head should be resting securely on your shoulder, not flopping. Your hand provides critical stability.

3. The Football Hold (Good for Feeding, Especially Bottle-Feeding, and Acid Reflux)

This hold is particularly useful for smaller babies, during bottle-feeding, or if a baby has acid reflux.

• Step 1: Position Your Arm: Sit or stand. Place your arm (e.g., right arm) along the baby’s back, with your hand supporting their head and neck, fingers spread. The baby’s body will be tucked under your arm, similar to holding a football.
• Step 2: Position Your Other Arm: Use your other arm to support the baby’s bottom and legs.
• Step 3: Lift and Secure: Gently lift the baby, ensuring their head is firmly supported by your hand and forearm. Their legs will extend past your elbow.
• Support Check: The baby’s head must be securely in your hand, not dangling. Their back should be straight along your forearm.

4. The Belly Hold / Colic Hold (Relieves Gas and Colic)

This soothing hold can help alleviate gas and colic symptoms.

• Step 1: Lay Baby Face Down: Carefully lay the baby face down along one of your forearms.
• Step 2: Support Head and Neck: Your hand should support the baby’s head and neck, with their face turned to the side to allow for clear breathing.
• Step 3: Support Torso and Legs: Your forearm will support their belly and chest, applying gentle pressure that can help with gas. Their legs will dangle on either side of your arm.
• Step 4: Use Other Hand for Security/Patting: Your free hand can be placed on the baby’s back for added security or used to gently rub or pat their back.
• Support Check: Ensure the baby’s head is not pressing against your arm in a way that obstructs breathing. Their airway must be clear.

5. The Sitting Hold (For Older Babies with Better Head Control)

Once your baby develops better head control (usually around 3-4 months), this hold allows them to look around more easily.

• Step 1: Position Your Arms: Sit down. Place one arm around the baby’s back, bringing your hand under their armpit to support their chest and upper back.
• Step 2: Support the Bottom: Use your other arm to support the baby’s bottom and thighs, similar to how they would sit on your lap.
• Step 3: Gently Lift: Lift the baby, keeping their back supported and their bottom secure. While they have better head control, still be mindful of sudden movements.
• Support Check: Ensure their back is straight and they feel stable. If their head still wobbles significantly, revert to a hold with more direct head support.

Things to Avoid When Holding a Baby

• Never allow the head to flop: This is the most critical rule.
• Don’t hold by the arms or legs: Never pull or lift a baby by their limbs.
• Avoid rough movements or shaking: This can cause severe injuries.
• Don’t pinch or squeeze: Be gentle and avoid putting pressure on soft spots.
• Don’t hold unsafely if tired: If you’re exhausted, sit down or ask for help to ensure you maintain a secure grip.

My Personal Experience: The Learning Curve

I vividly remember the initial apprehension of holding my firstborn. They felt so tiny and fragile! The nurses in the hospital were invaluable, gently guiding my hands and showing me how to cradle their head. It felt awkward at first, almost as if I had “butterfingers.” But with practice, picking them up and holding them became second nature. The key was consciously remembering to bring my hand to their head first, before lifting. And even as they grew and gained more head control, that habit of providing solid support never left me. It’s truly a skill that builds confidence with every secure embrace.

Conclusion

Holding a baby with proper support is fundamental to their safety and comfort. By consistently supporting their head and neck, and providing a secure base for their body, you can create a calm and bonding experience for both you and your little one. Practice these different holds, find what feels most comfortable for you and your baby, and always prioritize safety. With a little time and patience, you’ll become a confident and capable baby holder.

Cleaning your baby’s car seat fabric is essential for maintaining hygiene and ensuring your child’s safety. Over time, spills, crumbs, and dirt can accumulate, making regular cleaning necessary. This guide provides a step-by-step approach to effectively clean your baby’s car seat fabric.

1. Gather Necessary Supplies

Before starting, ensure you have the following items:

• Mild detergent (free from bleach or harsh chemicals)
• Warm water
• Soft-bristled brush or toothbrush
• Microfiber cloths
• Vacuum cleaner with attachments
• Towels
• Spray bottle
• Optional: baby-safe stain remover

2. Review the Car Seat Manual

Before disassembling or cleaning, consult the car seat’s user manual. Manufacturers provide specific cleaning instructions to ensure the seat’s integrity and safety features are maintained. If the manual is unavailable, check the manufacturer’s website for guidance.

3. Remove the Car Seat from the Vehicle

Taking the car seat out of the car allows for thorough cleaning and easier access to all components. Place it on a flat, clean surface.

4. Detach Fabric Covers and Padding

Carefully remove the fabric covers and any padding, following the instructions in the manual. Take note of how each piece is attached to facilitate reassembly later. Using a camera or smartphone to take photos during disassembly can be helpful.

5. Vacuum the Seat

Use a vacuum cleaner with appropriate attachments to remove loose debris, crumbs, and dirt from the car seat’s shell and fabric components. Pay special attention to crevices and seams where debris tends to accumulate.

6. Clean the Fabric Covers

Machine-Washable Covers:

• Place the fabric covers in the washing machine.
• Use a gentle cycle with cold water and mild detergent.
• Avoid using bleach or fabric softeners.
• After washing, air-dry the covers by laying them flat or hanging them up. Avoid using a dryer, as high heat can damage the fabric.

Non-Machine-Washable Covers:

• Mix a solution of warm water and mild detergent in a spray bottle.
• Lightly spray the solution onto the fabric.
• Use a soft-bristled brush or cloth to gently scrub the fabric, focusing on stained areas.
• Wipe away excess moisture with a clean towel.
• Allow the covers to air-dry completely before reassembling.

7. Clean the Harness Straps and Buckles

It’s crucial not to submerge harness straps in water or use harsh chemicals, as this can compromise their strength.

• Wipe the straps with a cloth dampened with warm water and mild soap.
• For the buckle, rinse it under warm water to remove debris. Do not use soap or submerge the buckle.
• Shake out excess water and allow the buckle to air-dry completely.

8. Clean the Plastic Shell

• Wipe down the plastic shell with a cloth soaked in warm water and mild detergent.
• Use a toothbrush to reach into crevices and remove stubborn dirt.
• Dry the shell thoroughly with a clean towel.

9. Reassemble the Car Seat

Once all components are completely dry, reassemble the car seat by following the steps in reverse order of disassembly. Ensure all parts are securely and correctly attached.

10. Regular Maintenance Tips

• Perform spot cleaning as needed to address spills promptly.
• Vacuum the car seat regularly to prevent buildup of debris.
• Establish a routine cleaning schedule to maintain cleanliness and hygiene.